From the early modern period of Korean history, Tsushima had been a gateway for trade and exchange between Joseon and Japan. Following Joseon’s opening of its ports, the two countries’ diplomatic ties underwent drastic changes:

In Japan, a new government was formed following the Meiji Restoration. In October 1868, an official letter was sent to the Joseon government informing it of the change. However, Joseon demanded that a new letter be submitted, since the first letter contained some terms which were reserved for exclusive reference to China’s emperor.

The Meiji government responded by closing down the existing Tsushima-based diplomatic channel and handed over full authority to deal directly with Joseon to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

In the meantime, Joseon’s staunch isolationist Daewongun, the father of King Gojong, was driven out in 1873, after many years of ruling as regent and the Joseon government resumed discussions to address the issue of Japan’s official diplomatic letter and to promote trade relations with Japan. Bak Gyu-su disagreed with Daewongun and argued that first, the terms used to refer to the king in Japan’s letter were terms that had widespread use in Japan; second, issues with Japan would never be resolved unless Joseon dealt with Japan’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs; and third, strained relations with Japan would not be beneficial for national security in confronting the Western nations. Meanwhile, in order to seize the opportunity to force Korea into a commercial treaty, the Japanese government, for its part, deliberately engineered a confrontation with Korea with the so-called Unyo Incident.

On Sept. 19, 1875, the Japanese navy vessel Unyo appeared on the waters off Ganghwado. The Japanese soldiers pretended to try to obtain fresh water, but in fact they hoped to provoke the fire of the Joseon soldiers at the Chojijin fortifications on the southeast tip of the island of Ganghwado. The Japanese then opened fire and plundered Chojijin and the island of Yeongjongdo. On Jan. 15, 1876, Kuroda Kiyotaka arrived in Busan with six warships carrying about 300 soldiers and demanded that Joseon sign a treaty.

In February 1876, the Joseon government dispatched Sin Heon to negotiate with Kuroda. During the talks, Kuroda stated that plans for an expedition to Joseon was gaining support within the Japanese government in response to Joseon’s rejection of Japan’s official letter and peaceful mission, and threatened that Japanese troops would land on the Korean peninsula should Joseon turn down the trade treaty. As a result, the 1876 Treaty of Friendship, or the Treaty of Ganghwa, was signed on Feb. 27, 1876. The 12-article treaty at the very outset proclaimed that, as autonomous nations, Joseon and Japan both possessed equal sovereign rights. Under the provisions of the treaty, the port of Choryang at Busan was opened, followed by the opening of Wonsan (Aug. 1879) and Incheon (Sept. 1883).

In the process of pursuing military reform, the Joseon government established a new military unit called the Special Skills Force (Byeolgigun) and invited Horimoto Reizo, a lieutenant in the Japanese army, to instruct the elite corps. Infuriated by the special treatment the special force enjoyed, the traditional military soldiers rose to fight, which resulted in the Military Mutiny of 1882. In June 1882, the mutinous soldiers killed Min Gyeom-ho, a high-ranking government official who had played a central role in creating the Special Skills Force, and also attacked the Japanese legation, with the Japanese minister barely escaping. Then on Aug. 30, 1882, the Treaty of Jemulpo was concluded to compensate for the damage suffered by Japan. According to the terms of this treaty, Japan was to send an embassy to Joseon and could station a company of guards at its legation in Seoul.

Looking for an opportunity to drive Qing China’s presence out of the Korean peninsula, the progressives, including Kim Ok-gyun and Bak Yeong-hyo, who regarded the Japanese example as a benchmark for national reform, planned and executed the nation’s first political movement with the goal of establishing a free, independent, and modern state. The Coup d’Etat of 1884 took place in December 1884 and ended in failure. Takezoe Shinichiro, the Japanese minister stationed in Seoul in late October 1884, promised to render assistance to the progressives in the event of a coup, but he withdrew the Japanese troops in the midst of fighting against the Chinese soldiers, providing a critical cause for the failure of the coup.

Japan’s Foreign Minister Inoue Kaoru was dispatched to Joseon in December 1884 to negotiate post-coup matters, and he tried to place all responsibility onto the Joseon side. By signing the Treaty of Hanseong in January 1885, the Joseon government agreed to send missions to Japan as a gesture of apology, to indemnify the Japanese victims and to punish those involved in the raid on the legation.

In the 2nd lunar month of 1894, overwhelmed by the uprising of the Donghak peasant army, the Joseon government appealed for military assistance to Qing China, which quickly responded. Japan also sent in troops, in accordance with the joint troop dispatch provision of the Convention of Tianjin. However, even after the 11th day of the 6th lunar month the same year, when the Joseon government reached a truce with the Donghak peasant soldiers in Jeonju which resulted in a voluntary dispersion of the peasant army, the head of the Japanese legation rejected Joseon’s request to withdraw its troops. Instead, it stationed a large force of 7,000-8,000 soldiers, including the 3rd and 5th Japanese Divisions, on Korean territory.

Japan went on to demand that the Joseon government sever its diplomatic ties with China and accept the comprehensive reform plan it had drawn up for Korea’s administration, jurisdiction, and finance and Joseon strongly resisted. On Jul. 23, 1894, Japanese troops staged a raid on Gyeongbokgung, occupying Joseon’s military facilities surrounding the palace and seizing the weapons from the troops.

After Japan occupied the royal palace, a series of treaties were enacted between the two countries, compelling the Joseon government to support Japan in the Sino-Japanese War. On Aug. 20, 1894, Joseon was forced to sign the Korea-Japan Provisional Agreements, allowing Japan to construct railways and military telegraph lines between Seoul and Busan and between Seoul and Incheon. Several days later, on Aug. 26, 1894, the Korea-Japan Alliance was formed, which stipulated that Joseon assist Japan in the war by providing it with supplies and facilities for the movement of troops on the peninsula.

After Japan won the Battle of Pyeongyang in August 1894 in the Sino-Japanese War, it directed its attention to the south. To assure its security in southern Korea, Japan mobilized its troops and put down the Donghak peasant army. On Oct. 9, 1894, Inoue Kaoru, the Japanese foreign minister, demanded that Joseon troops and local officials act under the command of Japanese officers in suppressing the Donghak army.

In late October, 1894, under the leadership of Jeon Bong-jun, tens of thousands of Donghak peasant soldiers from both the southern and northern regions of Korea attempted to enter Gongju Fortress. A Japanese army contingent of 2,000 was mobilized along with Joseon troops in this battle and, as a result, Donghak peasant soldiers suffered numerous casualties and retreated. On Apr. 17, 1895, the Sino-Japanese War ended in victory for Japan and the Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed, under which China recognized the total independence of Korea and that the traditional suzerain-tributary relationship between Qing China and Joseon ended.

Later, the tripartite intervention in which Russia played a central role weakened Japan’s dominance over Joseon and, in July 1894, Queen Min (later given the title Empress Myoengseong) tried to use this as an opportunity to disperse the pro-Japanese forces trained by Japan. Her attempt resulted in a backlash from Japan and Miura Goro, who succeeded Inoue Kaoru as Japanese foreign minister in September, 1894, authorized the assassination of Queen Min. On Oct. 8, 1895, Japanese legation guards and several Japanese assassins raided Gyeongbok Palace, killing Queen Min along with her sevants and guards.

Following the assassination of the queen and the infamous order that came in November 1895 from Japan to cut the traditional topknots of Korean males, the so-called righteous armies (uibyeong), rose around the country in protest against Japan. The guerilla bands fought mainly in the central part of Korea in 1895, and the righteous armies from Jecheon and Gangneung, which were the most renowned, managed to push northwestward, engaging in many skirmishes with government forces and Japanese troops, but most of their soldiers ended up being captured or killed.

After the murder of Queen Min, the Japanese government sent Komura Jutaro to Korea as the new Japanese minister, trying to preserve the status quo on the Korean peninsula through negotiations with Russia. He finally established the Waeber-Komura Agreement with Russia and, under the agreement, Japan was allowed to station its military police in Korea under the pretext of protecting its telegraph line between Seoul and Busan. The agreement also allowed for the landing of Japanese forces in Seoul, Wonsan, and Busan in order to protect Japanese residents in Seoul and in the open ports. Meanwhile, in 1897, Joseon changed its name from the kingdom of Joseon to the Great Han Empire, accompanied by King Gojong’s assumption of the title ‘Emperor.’

In February 1904, the Japanese embarked on the Russo-Japanese War with a surprise attack on the Russian ships at Port Arthur (Lushun) and Inchon. As a result, although Joseon had declared its neutrality, the Korean peninsula turned into a battleground.

Relying on the military might of its troops in Korea, Japan used threats and persuasion on the Joseon government until finally, two weeks after Japan’s declaration of the Russo-Japanese War, the Korea-Japanese Agreement Letter was adopted on Feb. 23, 1904. According to the terms of this letter, Japan was permitted to use any facilities on the Korean peninsula it needed in its war strategies at any time.

Japan also came up with detailed plans for the colonization of Korea, covering all aspects including military, diplomatic relations, transportation, communications, agriculture, and fishery. Based on these plans, the First Korea-Japan Agreement was signed on Aug. 22, 1904. With this agreement, the Korean government had to employ a Japanese financial adviser, as appointed by Japan, and had to consult the Japanese authorities before concluding treaties with foreign governments.

Following the signing of the Treaty of Portsmouth, under which Russia acknowledged Japan’s supremacy on the peninsula, Ito Hirobumi, the Japanese statesman, entered Gyeongbok Palace on Nov. 15, 1905 and threatened Emperor Gojong and his ministers to accept his draft of the Protectorate Treaty, which would be final and unrevisable. On Nov. 17, 1905, Bak Je-sun, the Korean minister of foreign affairs, and Hayasi Konske, the Japanese minister, signed the 1905 Protectorate Treaty (Second Korea-Japan Agreements) and virtually full authority over Korea’s diplomatic affairs went to Japan. Japan began sending a Japanese Resident-General to Korea to manage Korea’s foreign relations. On March, 1906, Ito Hirobumi was appointed the first Resident-General.

At the Second Hague Peace Conference of 1907, Korean emissaries were secretly sent by Emperor Gojong to attempt to draw the international community’s attention to the injustice done by Japan to Korea. Japan used this incident as a pretense to force Gojong to yield his throne to the crown prince. On Sep. 17, 1907, Gojong’s abdication was announced by Japan and on Sept. 24, 1907, a new agreement (Third Korea-Japan Agreements) was concluded.

On Aug. 1, 1907, Japan disbanded the remaining Korean military units and, in June 1910, seized control of police authority in Korea by securing an agreement yielding martial authority to Japan. After a series of attempts to eliminate Korea’s sovereign power, Japan finally made Emperor Sunjong sign the Treaty of Annexation on Aug. 22, 1910.

Meanwhile, after the conclusion of the 1905 Protectorate Treaty and the disbandment of the Korean army, the righteous armies waged an active struggle against Japan to regain Korea’s sovereignty. Koreans from almost every class, from Confucian scholars and merchants to peasants and veterans, among others, participated in the movement.

After the enactment of the Treaty of Ganghwa and the consequent opening of Korean ports in Busan (Port of Choryang), Wonsan, and Inchon, Japanese currency and capital flowing into Korea increased and a large amount of Korea’s major products such as rice and gold began to be transported out to Japan.

As Japan imported rice and soybeans from Korea on a large scale to remedy its own food and material shortages, Korea suffered soaring prices due to the ensuing grain and food shortage on the peninsula. When the situation was made worse by a bad crop harvest, Jo Byeong-sik, governor of Hamgyeong province, put into effect the National Grain Law in October 1889, prohibiting soybean exports through the port of Wonsan for a year. In response to this move, Japan demanded Korea to lift the ban, to punish those responsible for it, and to pay a large indemnity. In the end, in April 1893, Korea agreed to pay 110, 000 won to Japan.

In 1889, the Joseon-Japan Fisheries Agreement was concluded, guaranteeing Japanese fishermen rights to fish freely in Joseon’s territorial waters. They could now obtain a fishing license if they paid only three to ten won a year in taxes per boat annually. Joseon fishermen’s boats and equipments were behind the times, so their Japanese competitors quickly dominated the fishing industry. After the Russo-Japanese War, the Korea-Japan Fisheries Agreement was concluded and a new set of laws on the fishing industry was legislated and promulgated in 1908. With the support of the new law, Japanese fishermen monopolized Korea’s major coastal fisheries and expanded their fishing activities even to inland waters.

In March 1878, the Busan branch of the Daiichi Ginko (First Bank of Tokyo) was established and even more Japanese currency began to circulate in Korea, eating away at the Korean financial market and currency system. As a result, the major regional markets in Korea, including those in the open ports Busan, Wonsan, and Inchon were gradually dominated by Japanese merchants and financiers. From 1886 to 1894, the Daiichi Ginko gave the Korean government approximately fifty loans (about 400,000 won in total) through its Korean branch and, in return, secured its status as the bank in control of Korea’s maritime customs.

In December, 1894, Inoue Kaoru, the Japanese minister, insisted that Joseon receive loans from Japan, which was a plot to solidify Japan’s control over Korea. In January, 1895, a 200,000 won loan was granted to the Ministry of Finance (Takjibu) and on Mar. 30, 1895, a deal was made for a 3 million won loan. Constantly pressed after the deal to repay the loan, Korea paid back the entire sum between 1897 to 1899 along with the accrued interest, which worsened its financial trouble.

Illegal mining was also rampant among Japanese who did not have mining licenses from the Joseon government. The mining rights for the gold mines in Mt. Jiksan in Chungcheong Province, went to a Japanese named Shibusawa Eiichi. After the 1906 enactment of a new law concerning the mining industry, the number of Japanese mine owners soared.

Major railway concessions also went to Japan, as well as concessions in their construction, including the Gyeongin Line (Seoul-Incheon, 1896-1899), Gyeongbu Line (Seoul-Busan, 1898-1905), and Gyeongui Line (Seoul-Uiju, 1904-1906). The Japanese expropriated land at giveaway prices and forced Koreans into labor at railway construction sites. The Gyeongbu Line, completed in 1905, was used for transporting not only military supplies but also products and resources from Gyeongsang, Jeolla, and Chungcheong provinces and other import and exports goods to and from Japan.

After the opening of ports, Japan’s share in Korea’s foreign trade grew even larger, but the economic relationship between the two countries remained unbalanced because under the no-tariff agreement, Korea no longer had sovereign power over customs. Korea’s major imports were cotton and silk fabrics. The increase of the cotton fabric imports dealt a blow to Korean weavers after the Sino-Japanese War. Paper, brassware, and ceramics industries also suffered greatly with some businesses on the brink of bankruptcy due to Japanese imports.

Chronology of Events Related to Korea and Japan in Modern Age

1875 Sep.	Unyo Incident
1876 Feb.	Treaty of Ganghwa signed.
1879 Aug.	Opening of Wonsan Port.
1882 6th lunar month	Military Mutiny of 1882 (Imo gullan).
1882 Aug.	Treaty of Jemulpo signed.
1882 Sept.	Opening of Incheon Port.
1884 Dec.	Coup d’Etat of 1884 (Gapsinjeongbyeon)
1885 Apr.	Convention of Tianjin signed.
1889 Sept.	National Grain Law proclaimed.
1894 Jul.	Japanese Troops occupy Gyeongbok Palace.
1894 Aug.	Japan declares war on Qing China.
1894 9th lunar month	Second Donghak Peasant Army uprising .
1895 Apr.	Treaty of Shimonoseki signed.
1895 Oct.	Assassination of Queen Min.
1896	Righteous army uprising of 1896.
1899 Sept.	Construction begins on Gyeongin Line railway .
1904 Feb.	Russo-Japanese War breaks out.
1904 Feb. 23	Korea-Japanese Agreement Letter adopted.
1904 Aug. 22	First Korea-Japan Agreement signed.
1904 Nov. 10	Gyeongin Line railway completed.
1905 Sept. 5	Treaty of Portsmouth signed.
1905 Nov. 17	1905 Protectorate Treaty (Second Korea-Japan Agreements, Eulsa joyak) signed
1907 Jul. 19	Emperor Gojong abdicated.
1907 Jul. 24	Third Korea-Japan Agreements signed.
1907 Aug. 1	Korean military disbanded.
1908 Dec.	Oriental Development Company established
1908 Jul.	Korean-Japanese memorandum on the transfer to Japan of judicial power and prison administration (Giyugakseo) signed.
1910 Aug. 29	Treaty of Annexation signed. Fall of Great Han Empire